The role of basic senses
Our senses first connect us with the external world. External-world consists of physical matters in different forms. We have the tools through which we come to know what is around us. Our sense mechanisms help us to be aware their existence.
Our basic senses include ability to see objects, ability to hear sound, capacity to feel through our skin and body surface, ability to smell and taste. They are mediated by the sense organs which takes the signal to our brain.
Do we have other senses ?
The basic senses helps us with the basic signals which they generate through our organs but the brain processes these signals in various ways to make us sensitive to other aspect of the physical world and also about our own self to control ourselves in various ways.
If we close our eyes and take our hand towards our nose, we can do it accurately. So we can sense our body parts and their locations and movements through the space.
Perception
Imagine that you are walking on the road and there is traffic on the road. How do you know, you are walking on the road? You feel the hard surface of the road. You see the stretch of road in front of you. You can hear the sound of the traffic and you can see the surrounding environment. Hence you become aware that you are walking on the road. You perceive yourself to be walking on the road.
As you can see from the above that different senses must integrate to develop the perception. Although you may not be attending to any specific matter separately but still you become aware that you are walking on the road. So perception is a preattentive phenomenon. And it is a direct in nature because you directly know of the object, environment or a concept.
Why memory is important for perception
When you wave your finger in front of someone, he immediately becomes aware what is happening before him. He is recognizes that what is that being moved in front of his face. It is your finger. How did he come to know of it? He must have seen the structure of the finger and remembers it. He unconsciously breaks the impression generated from is visual field into perceptible divisions and then come to know that moving structure is a finger and it is the finger of the man in front of him.
How do we know that something is moving in front of us? We see a structure of an object and also become aware that on a time difference the objects position changes in the space. This means we must remember the previous positions of the object to compare the various changed positions of the object that is moving. This proves that the perception of motion is a result of interaction happening between the various parts of the brain that processes our sensory stimuli and also uses the impressions that we are continuously storing in our memory over a period of time.
Spatial Perception
When we move around we can clearly understand where the objects are placed. Our eyes and ears help us to locate and understand the specific location of an object. We can understand relative distance between several objects and also from our own body. We also become aware of how the objects are distributed in the space before us.
A blind person can understand shape by remembering his own hand movements. This kind of memory may be termed as motor memory. So every time you ask a blind man to trace a circle he will be able to tell you that what shape he has traced. But if he suddenly gets back hi vision and sees a circle. He will never be able to tell that the shape is a circle. this is because what he remembers is what he traced moving his hand. He has no memory of a circles visual shape. But if he traces it out on the surface, he will be able to connect the visual experience with his motor memory of hand movements that he used during the tracing action.
It is seen that blind persons who are lacking their vision from their birth can move around in their familiar places. And they do it quite effectively. This means they remember the concept of arrangement of objects in the space around them. They carry a mental map of how each of the objects are placed in the space within which they operate.
Normally a person with vision will have the map defined in some way in the brain and a blind person will have it in a different way in their brain. But one thing is true that in both of the cases t the entire spatial concept is stored in the memory in some way or other.
Consciousness
To be conscious simply means to be aware of the surrounding environment and activities. A conscious person can feel, think, move, understand and communicate. He can remember things of past, plan for future and reflect on what he remembers.
Being unconscious similarly means the opposite. An unconscious person cannot think, understand, move, communicate, remember and reflect.
But to be conscious a person has to be capable of perceive things and also should be able evaluate the perceived idea or concept. The precess of evaluation will be possible only if he can remember the past experiences, compare them with new experiences. This means to be conscious a person must have memory.
On the other hand if a person gets the sensory inputs in his brain but cannot respond to it he is no more conscious. If the memory recall process is affected and a person cannot remember the past data, we call it clouding of consciousness. A person is confused because he cannot remember where he is, what time it is, with whom he is speaking, or even who he is. This is also known as disorientation. Such a person's thinking become incoherent and illogical
Today, the connection between perception and memory is increasingly recognized ( Murdock, 1979; Turvey & Shaw, 1979). When we try to identify the processes used in perception, we find that we must be aware of a situation, attend to it, and identify it by recalling similar situations. Often, when memory fails, we imagine what must have happened to fill the gaps. We can recall and imagine something seen or heard, even smelled, tasted or touched..
References
Memory and brain, Chapter : Perception
Sunday, June 27, 2010
Saturday, June 19, 2010
Memory - From Functional Perspective
What is memory ?
Memory is a mechanism through which we retain information acquired during our lifetime. This may be our day to day learning or the sensory inputs we receive from outside environments.
Memory does not comprise a single unitary system, but rather an array of interacting systems, each capable of encoding or registering information, storing it, and making it available by retrieval. Without this capability for information storage, we could not perceive adequately, learn from our past, understand the present, or plan for the future.
What are the various types of memory from functional perspective?
Memory has many sub divisions or types depending on the kind of function that is done by the brain. Some of them are given below ..
Sensory memory : In order to see a continuously moving image it is necessary for the brain's visual system to store the information from one frame until the arrival of the next. The visual store responsible for this is one of a whole series of sensory memory systems that are intimately involved in our perception of the world.
An analogous series of sensory memories occurs in hearing. If a nine digit telephone number is read in front of someone. And then he is asked to repeat it, he likely to repeat it right. But if he is asked to write it he is likely to make errors. The greater number of such telephone number will likely to increase the number of errors he makes. However here the objective is to explain that when we remember the sound patter it is easier to repeat but converting the representation of sound pattern to visual pattern increases the likelihood of errors.
Our system has a system of storage and retrieval for other senses in the same way.
Short term memory : Short-term memory (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time.
Working memory : In both language comprehension and arithmetic, there is a need for the temporary storage of information in order to perform various functions subsidiary to understanding or calculating. Once the task has been achieved, the subsidiary information is no longer required. We call it working memory. Working memory is the executive and attentional aspect of short-term memory involved in the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. This forms a small intermediate storage like one we use in computers.
Long term memory : Long term memory can store information for few days to decades or even for the lifetime. Short-term memory is a temporary potentiation of neural connections which can become long-term memory through the process of rehearsal and meaningful association. This represents information that is stored for considerable periods of time. Indeed, some theorists claim that information in memory never disappears, but simply becomes less and less accessible. Remembering your own name, how to speak, where you lived as a child, or where you were last year or indeed five minutes ago are all assumed to depend on long-term memory.
Such memory is primarily concerned with storing information, unlike sensory memory and short-term memory where the storage is an incidental feature of other aspects of the system.
Implicit memory : People rely on implicit memory every day in the form of procedural memory, the type of memory that allows people to remember how to tie their shoes or ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about these activities. Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences (Schacter, 1987). Evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process whereby subjects show improved performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared (Graf and Mandler, 1984).
Explicit memory : Explicit memory is the conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information. We use explicit memory throughout the day, such as remembering the time of an appointment or recollecting an event from years ago. Whatever we can remember when we try to recollect is explicit memory.
Declarative memory : Declarative memory is the aspect of human memory that stores facts. It is so called because it refers to memories that can be consciously discussed, or ''declared.'' It applies to standard textbook learning and knowledge, as well as memories that can be 'travelled back to' in one's 'mind's eye'. It is contrasted with procedural memory, which applies to skills. Declarative memory is subject to forgetting, but frequently-accessed memories can last indefinitely.
Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one of the two major divisions in memory.
Semantic memory : Semantic memory refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specific experiences. The conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world is generally thought to be independent of context and personal relevance.
Episodic memory : Episodic memory refers to the memory of events, times, places, associated emotions, and other conception-based knowledge in relation to an experience.
Procedural memory : Refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil or ride a bicycle. While speaking what muscle movements are t be done in what sequence.
Spatial memory : spatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial (pertaining to space and location with respect to external environment) orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city.
Other important functions associated with memory
Memory plays a big role in our learning process. We will never be able to think if we are stuck in the present. Even for doing the next immediate task we have to associate with our previously done tasks. There are few very important functions which are associated with memory are listed below…
Language learning : The way we learn and process language very much depends on certain basic abilities we have. Any language has its own set of sounds, vocabularies, grammar and the way we reproduce the language.
Vocabulary and Grammar : This is where the ability remember and select of words comes into play.
Language perception : When we listen to others .. we need to understand what they mean. We remember the experiences of our life, compare with beliefs and values and the make sense of what is being spoken about. On the other side if we have to say something then we need to first make ourselves ready for that action by preparing to make sense whatever we going to communicate on.
Speech motor movements : When we try to express ourselves we have to make sounds and these sounds come after you re-execute the learned movements. It is purely a function of memory and brain. Our brain control the movements that we make for producing the sound,
Association : Every piece of information in our memory is connected to other pieces in some way or another. For example, if you are given the word "apple", what do you think of? Perhaps something like this: APPLE: red, round, sweet, teacher, tree, fruit. This property of memory is known as memory association.
Sensory perception : Only sensory stimulus from various sense organ is not enough to perceive things as specific objects .. it requires integration of several senses and their collective effect to create a chunk forming an object . We normally attend to objects sensed this way. Impression of these objects are recorded in memory and they form the basis of forming schema that finally help us to recognize objects as familiar objects.
Recognition : Our brain is capable of associating past experiences, learning and sensory signals to the received inputs from our sensory organs and create perceptions which helps us in recognition of objects, faces, pictures etc.
Brain mapping for memory functions
Scientists and neurologists have come to know lot about our brain functions by making a functional map of brain. It was observed by them that certain specific functions are impaired when some lesions (abnormality/damage) have formed in specific part of brain. Thus most of our present knowledge of brain functions have been contributed by study of brain damaged persons.
Scientists have tried to map all of the memory functions discussed above one or more areas of the brain. We have been able to study brain functions and mappings with the help of medical equipments producing various kind of images during execution of specific tasks. In this process we try to access which of the brain ares are activated during a specific type of activity is performed.
Brain mapping may be dealt as a separate topic in more detailed way.
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/
Biological Psychology, 10e by James W. Kalat
Essentials of Human Memory, Alan D. Baddeley
Medical Encyclopedia from MobileReference
Memory is a mechanism through which we retain information acquired during our lifetime. This may be our day to day learning or the sensory inputs we receive from outside environments.
Memory does not comprise a single unitary system, but rather an array of interacting systems, each capable of encoding or registering information, storing it, and making it available by retrieval. Without this capability for information storage, we could not perceive adequately, learn from our past, understand the present, or plan for the future.
What are the various types of memory from functional perspective?
Memory has many sub divisions or types depending on the kind of function that is done by the brain. Some of them are given below ..
Sensory memory : In order to see a continuously moving image it is necessary for the brain's visual system to store the information from one frame until the arrival of the next. The visual store responsible for this is one of a whole series of sensory memory systems that are intimately involved in our perception of the world.
An analogous series of sensory memories occurs in hearing. If a nine digit telephone number is read in front of someone. And then he is asked to repeat it, he likely to repeat it right. But if he is asked to write it he is likely to make errors. The greater number of such telephone number will likely to increase the number of errors he makes. However here the objective is to explain that when we remember the sound patter it is easier to repeat but converting the representation of sound pattern to visual pattern increases the likelihood of errors.
Our system has a system of storage and retrieval for other senses in the same way.
Short term memory : Short-term memory (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time.
Working memory : In both language comprehension and arithmetic, there is a need for the temporary storage of information in order to perform various functions subsidiary to understanding or calculating. Once the task has been achieved, the subsidiary information is no longer required. We call it working memory. Working memory is the executive and attentional aspect of short-term memory involved in the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. This forms a small intermediate storage like one we use in computers.
Long term memory : Long term memory can store information for few days to decades or even for the lifetime. Short-term memory is a temporary potentiation of neural connections which can become long-term memory through the process of rehearsal and meaningful association. This represents information that is stored for considerable periods of time. Indeed, some theorists claim that information in memory never disappears, but simply becomes less and less accessible. Remembering your own name, how to speak, where you lived as a child, or where you were last year or indeed five minutes ago are all assumed to depend on long-term memory.
Such memory is primarily concerned with storing information, unlike sensory memory and short-term memory where the storage is an incidental feature of other aspects of the system.
Implicit memory : People rely on implicit memory every day in the form of procedural memory, the type of memory that allows people to remember how to tie their shoes or ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about these activities. Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences (Schacter, 1987). Evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process whereby subjects show improved performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared (Graf and Mandler, 1984).
Explicit memory : Explicit memory is the conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information. We use explicit memory throughout the day, such as remembering the time of an appointment or recollecting an event from years ago. Whatever we can remember when we try to recollect is explicit memory.
Declarative memory : Declarative memory is the aspect of human memory that stores facts. It is so called because it refers to memories that can be consciously discussed, or ''declared.'' It applies to standard textbook learning and knowledge, as well as memories that can be 'travelled back to' in one's 'mind's eye'. It is contrasted with procedural memory, which applies to skills. Declarative memory is subject to forgetting, but frequently-accessed memories can last indefinitely.
Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one of the two major divisions in memory.
Semantic memory : Semantic memory refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specific experiences. The conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world is generally thought to be independent of context and personal relevance.
Episodic memory : Episodic memory refers to the memory of events, times, places, associated emotions, and other conception-based knowledge in relation to an experience.
Procedural memory : Refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil or ride a bicycle. While speaking what muscle movements are t be done in what sequence.
Spatial memory : spatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial (pertaining to space and location with respect to external environment) orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city.
Other important functions associated with memory
Memory plays a big role in our learning process. We will never be able to think if we are stuck in the present. Even for doing the next immediate task we have to associate with our previously done tasks. There are few very important functions which are associated with memory are listed below…
Language learning : The way we learn and process language very much depends on certain basic abilities we have. Any language has its own set of sounds, vocabularies, grammar and the way we reproduce the language.
Vocabulary and Grammar : This is where the ability remember and select of words comes into play.
Language perception : When we listen to others .. we need to understand what they mean. We remember the experiences of our life, compare with beliefs and values and the make sense of what is being spoken about. On the other side if we have to say something then we need to first make ourselves ready for that action by preparing to make sense whatever we going to communicate on.
Speech motor movements : When we try to express ourselves we have to make sounds and these sounds come after you re-execute the learned movements. It is purely a function of memory and brain. Our brain control the movements that we make for producing the sound,
Association : Every piece of information in our memory is connected to other pieces in some way or another. For example, if you are given the word "apple", what do you think of? Perhaps something like this: APPLE: red, round, sweet, teacher, tree, fruit. This property of memory is known as memory association.
Sensory perception : Only sensory stimulus from various sense organ is not enough to perceive things as specific objects .. it requires integration of several senses and their collective effect to create a chunk forming an object . We normally attend to objects sensed this way. Impression of these objects are recorded in memory and they form the basis of forming schema that finally help us to recognize objects as familiar objects.
Recognition : Our brain is capable of associating past experiences, learning and sensory signals to the received inputs from our sensory organs and create perceptions which helps us in recognition of objects, faces, pictures etc.
Brain mapping for memory functions
Scientists and neurologists have come to know lot about our brain functions by making a functional map of brain. It was observed by them that certain specific functions are impaired when some lesions (abnormality/damage) have formed in specific part of brain. Thus most of our present knowledge of brain functions have been contributed by study of brain damaged persons.
Scientists have tried to map all of the memory functions discussed above one or more areas of the brain. We have been able to study brain functions and mappings with the help of medical equipments producing various kind of images during execution of specific tasks. In this process we try to access which of the brain ares are activated during a specific type of activity is performed.
Brain mapping may be dealt as a separate topic in more detailed way.
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/
Biological Psychology, 10e by James W. Kalat
Essentials of Human Memory, Alan D. Baddeley
Medical Encyclopedia from MobileReference
Thursday, June 17, 2010
About Bio-Psychology
Basic description of Bio-Psychology
Bio-psychology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.
If any one is interested in the study of bio-psychology, he will need to study human anatomy, physiology specially with respect to brain functions. He will also study the nervous system. He will relate his study thus done with general behavior and also behavior that is shown under specific situations by humans.
Biological psychologists try to answer four types of questions about any given behavior.
1) Physiological: How does it relate to the physiology of the brain and other organs? How does various parts of the nervous system are responsible for this behavior? What happens one after another to make this behavior to be surfaced out as an end result of a detailed process?
2) Ontogenetic: How does it develop within the individual? What is the process of development of this behavior starting from the childhood. How the learning process worked. can this learning process be modelled and understood?
3) Evolutionary: How did the capacity for the behavior evolve? Did this behavior evolved through few generations? Did they learn it from their ancestors? What were the intermediate steps? How to link the evidences to form this story?
4) Functional: Why did the capacity for this behavior evolve? Is there any specific reason why this behavior started? Is it a defense mechanism to deal with a risk or threat? Is it a part of practice or a culture?
Six major divisions of Bio-Psychology
Physiological psychology : Study of neural mechanisms of behavior by manipulating the nervous systems of non-human animals in controlled experiments.
Psychopharmacology : Study of effect of drugs on the brain and behavior.
Neuropsychology : Study of psychological effects of brain damage in human patients.
Psychophysiology : Study of the relation between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects by non-invasive physiological recording.
Cognitive neuroscience : Study of neural mechanisms of human cognition, largely through the use of functional brain imaging.
Comparative psychology : Study of evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior, largely through the use of the comparative method.
Career options for the people in this field.
If you want to consider a career related to biological psychology, you have a range of options. The relevant careers fall into two categories—research and therapy.
Common researcher titles are ..
Neuroscientists : They study anything related to neurology including related anatomy and physiology and also psychology.
Behavioral neuroscientists : Investigates how functioning of brain and nervous system controls our behavior.
Cognitive neuroscientists : They study brain's involvement in thinking, knowledge gathering and problem solving.
Neuropsychologists : They study behaviors and learn about abilities and disabilities of people with various kinds of brain damage and changes that occurs in their conditions over time,
Evolutionary psychologists : They research on social behaviors of human from an evolutionary perspecive, They study reasons for adapting special kind of common behaviors we demonstate under different situations.
Some of the therapist professions include ..
Neurologist : Treats people with brain damage or with diseases of nervous system.
Neurosurgeon : Performs brain surgery or surgery on nervous system.
Psychiatrist : Helps people with emotional distress or troublesome behaviors some time using drugs and also without drugs using psychotherapy and other non-drug medical procedures.
Clinical psychologists : Helps people with emotional distress with non-drug methods.
Conclusion
In conclusion bio-psychology is a combination of number of subjects that study psychology from various different angles. This study may be used for academic research or may be used in different theraputic professions for helping people in giving them relief from disordered health conditions.
References
http://psychology.about.com/od/biopsychology/a/biopsyc.htm
Biological Psychology, 10e by James W. Kalat
Biopsychology, 6e by John P. J. Pinel
Bio-psychology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.
If any one is interested in the study of bio-psychology, he will need to study human anatomy, physiology specially with respect to brain functions. He will also study the nervous system. He will relate his study thus done with general behavior and also behavior that is shown under specific situations by humans.
Biological psychologists try to answer four types of questions about any given behavior.
1) Physiological: How does it relate to the physiology of the brain and other organs? How does various parts of the nervous system are responsible for this behavior? What happens one after another to make this behavior to be surfaced out as an end result of a detailed process?
2) Ontogenetic: How does it develop within the individual? What is the process of development of this behavior starting from the childhood. How the learning process worked. can this learning process be modelled and understood?
3) Evolutionary: How did the capacity for the behavior evolve? Did this behavior evolved through few generations? Did they learn it from their ancestors? What were the intermediate steps? How to link the evidences to form this story?
4) Functional: Why did the capacity for this behavior evolve? Is there any specific reason why this behavior started? Is it a defense mechanism to deal with a risk or threat? Is it a part of practice or a culture?
Six major divisions of Bio-Psychology
Physiological psychology : Study of neural mechanisms of behavior by manipulating the nervous systems of non-human animals in controlled experiments.
Psychopharmacology : Study of effect of drugs on the brain and behavior.
Neuropsychology : Study of psychological effects of brain damage in human patients.
Psychophysiology : Study of the relation between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects by non-invasive physiological recording.
Cognitive neuroscience : Study of neural mechanisms of human cognition, largely through the use of functional brain imaging.
Comparative psychology : Study of evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior, largely through the use of the comparative method.
Career options for the people in this field.
If you want to consider a career related to biological psychology, you have a range of options. The relevant careers fall into two categories—research and therapy.
Common researcher titles are ..
Neuroscientists : They study anything related to neurology including related anatomy and physiology and also psychology.
Behavioral neuroscientists : Investigates how functioning of brain and nervous system controls our behavior.
Cognitive neuroscientists : They study brain's involvement in thinking, knowledge gathering and problem solving.
Neuropsychologists : They study behaviors and learn about abilities and disabilities of people with various kinds of brain damage and changes that occurs in their conditions over time,
Evolutionary psychologists : They research on social behaviors of human from an evolutionary perspecive, They study reasons for adapting special kind of common behaviors we demonstate under different situations.
Some of the therapist professions include ..
Neurologist : Treats people with brain damage or with diseases of nervous system.
Neurosurgeon : Performs brain surgery or surgery on nervous system.
Psychiatrist : Helps people with emotional distress or troublesome behaviors some time using drugs and also without drugs using psychotherapy and other non-drug medical procedures.
Clinical psychologists : Helps people with emotional distress with non-drug methods.
Conclusion
In conclusion bio-psychology is a combination of number of subjects that study psychology from various different angles. This study may be used for academic research or may be used in different theraputic professions for helping people in giving them relief from disordered health conditions.
References
http://psychology.about.com/od/biopsychology/a/biopsyc.htm
Biological Psychology, 10e by James W. Kalat
Biopsychology, 6e by John P. J. Pinel
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